Self-esteem (or self-regard), is an evaluative measure of our self-image, what Coopersmith (1967) terms "a personal judgement of worthiness, that is expressed in the attitudes the individual holds towards himself". These personal evaluations will be based on the values of the social groups, and the society. When one of the personal characteristics that make up our self-ideal, fails to match that corresponding quality, which we, through society's eyes have placed in our ideal-self, there is a fall in self-esteem.

The teacher of any child is in a powerful position to influence the self-esteem of their pupil, through both the establishment of a caring relationship, and the use of certain systematic activities

Certain situations or conditions that occur in or around a school setting can cause negative impact on a child's self-esteem level, through no fault of their own. This is normally due to failure of fitting their peer-group's stereo type of what constitutes a fellow pupil, children with EBD are particularly vulnerable. If a teacher is aware of these conditions they may be able to lessen their impact on the child

Secondary school children have their own set of unique problems. Adolescence is surely the period of greatest challenge and confusion in any child's life time. Children at secondary school have to deal with a constant battle between the privileges and enjoyments of youth, and the responsibilities of adulthood. For children aged between 11 and 18 years, an identity crisis is occurring and will continue throughout their educational life. During this period adolescents' bodies are physically changing, while they are simultaneously trying to identify the position of their social status amongst a peer group. Added to this adolescence are striving for independence from their parents, and recognition of this is required in order to enhance their self-image with both their peer group and their parents. During adolescence the primary focus is on establishing a positive ego identity, peer group recognition and development of social skills. In this confusing period adolescents frequently over-identify with public figures such as pop and film stars, sports figures and politicians.

The Bodily Self-image and Puberty

Since males develop sexual maturity slower than females, and have less obvious physical features of this process while passing through puberty, females bare the brunt of dissatisfaction with their "body self-image". It is hardly surprising, considering the stress this process can cause, that a recent survey identified the highest cause of death amongst females, under the age of 20 years old, in the UK to be due to suicide.

Societal Demands

Planning for future employment prospects by being seen to obtain skills deemed necessary to secure and maintain a job, is of major concern to everyone involved, except the adolescent. This feature has been termed by Higgins (1987, 1989) the "ought-self", which represents the attributes that someone (either yourself or another) believes you ought to posses. This can lead to continual harassment (from the pupils point of view) by society's representations (i.e. both parents and teachers) on the individuals academic performance in areas the adolescent does not deem as important.

Example: A pupil may have a great interest or/and talent in an area of the arts or humanities, but is failing to meet basic levels in maths and English, so no recognition is forthcoming regarding their personal achievements, only derogatory remarks regarding their failure. Hence self-esteem levels drop overall and the pupil believes his critics, that he is "useless". This initiates a self-fulfilling prophecy and the pupil becomes stuck in a vicious circle that culminates with them leaving school without any relevant qualifications.

Special Needs Pupils

Special needs teachers may notice the severity of impact on their pupils' self-esteem levels during adolescents amplified, due to two reasons;

1. The placing of the pupil into a separate Special Needs class, takes them away from their adolescent peer group.
2. Special Needs pupils may have a tendency to over act their problems (i.e. even more than usually disruptive behaviour) in order to receive additional attention from their adult group (i.e. parents & teachers).

Both these activities may alienate peers and result in social isolation. However low levels of academic self-concept can correlate with high levels of social self-concept dependent on the social peer group the individual moves in (Byrne, 1996).

Characteristically a child with low self-esteem represses their spontaneous ability to express themselves, through fear of punishment or feelings of guilt. A low self-esteem child finds it difficult to believe that they can safely reveal their true personality without risking disapproval or rejection from others. A child with behavioural difficulties will frequently suffer from low self-esteem, and express or manifest their dissatisfaction with their lot in the following ways:

Belittling and Blaming Others

Many teachers will be familiar with the child who continually blames others for their own difficulties. In the case of the EBD child, this may be a used as an excuse for incomplete work or behaviour (e.g. “I could concentrate because the other children kept bothering me”, etc.). Although this may initial only be mildly irritation, it can if not be investigated, escalate and should be checked at the earliest opportunity.

Lying and Boastful Behaviour

Frequently low self-esteem can be masked by apparent confidence and a brash exterior. A child who starts to tell lies or boasts about their exploits in order to gain popularity, is on a downward slide, as eventually no one will believe their work, no matter how must they swear it is true (in effect the boy who cried wolf once to often). Since this is an attempt to gain attention and popularity, once the lies start to produce a reduction in self-esteem, the child may then slip in to an almost fantasy world of their own making.

Day Dreaming

Many children with low self-esteem lack the confidence to attempt to achieve, and so perform at low levels of their ability. In an attempt to avoid what they believe to be a potentially humiliating experience, the child drops out of the class by not participating in any noticeable manner. This is the child who at the end of the class hands in a blank paper and when questioned about it fails to give any discernible reason for their lack of work. Even when given extra work as a punishment, this child will fail to complete the assignment. It is considered better to risk the teacher’s punishment than to be humiliates by failure. How can one fail if one never tries?

Aggressive Behaviour and Bullying

Often a child’s low self-esteem can go undetected for a long period. The causes may be hidden by the very behaviour the child adopts to avoid their problem. For example, the child who’s academic abilities are significantly lower than their class mates. The child fears looking stupid to their peers, so adopts an attitude of hostility to wards them and authority figures. If this serves to exclude the child from classes, so much the better, as their ability level will remain unnoticed. Obviously the only way this situation can be rectified, is if the child’s actions are recognised for what they are, an attempt to disguise feelings of inadequacy in some other area. It the teacher merely adopts a confrontational attitude back, the child is destined for a downward spiral of trouble.

School Refusal

In the case of the child who is frequently absent from school for no apparent reason, the cause can be related low self-esteem in two situations. The first is found in younger children and is a “phobic” reaction to attending school (see Separation Anxiety Disorder), where by the child feels insecure and insignificant at school, in comparison to the rewarding security of home. Frequently there is some history of starting school at a late age for medical or other reasons. The child has yet to establish a trusting relationship with any other children or authority figures other than their own parents.

The second situation is for older children and can be seen as the ultimate expression of fear of failure by avoidance of all educational situations and interaction. This is symptomatic of a child with dangerously low self-esteem who has in their own heart already resigned themselves to defeat and given up the struggle. If left to their own devices this child can become a persistent truant and in attempts to bolster their self-esteem external to the school (combined with excessive spare time to waste), by delinquent or criminal behaviour.

Ideally the most appropriate way of assessing self-esteem levels of a child or class is to get to know them well over a period of time. However this is not always possible if dealing with a new (unknown) class or a difficult individual child, when speed of assessment, is of the essence. If the teacher does not wish to engage in complex assessment methods, a few simple techniques can be uses such as:

• Interviews- where by a skilled teacher (such as a counsellor, head of year or pastoral care teacher) encourages the child to discuss their self-concept. Interaction with the child can be both helpful and inhibiting dependent upon the previous relationship between teacher and pupil. The drawing up by the teacher of a list of standard question responses, in advance, can be of great advantage in the approach.
  
  
• A Teacher Check List - this is filled in by the teacher based on observations ,of the pupils behaviour.

  Example:
  Does Pupil make self-disparaging remarks?
  Is pupil boastful?
  Is pupil hesitant and timid in new situations?
  Does the pupil make excuses to avoid situations which may be stressful?
  Is pupil continually asking for help and/or reassurance?
  Is pupil continually asking if they are liked or popular?
  Does pupil hang back and remain on the fringe of a group?
  Is pupil apathetic in a learning situation?
  Does pupil daydream a lot?
  Does pupil avoid work even though risking teacher's displeasure?
  Does pupil tend to blame others for their own failures?
  Is pupil reluctant to assume responsibilities?
  

  Even if all these questions are answered affirmatively, the feelings of low self-esteem are merely being inferred, not observed directly. There is also no set average (or Mean) value, as to what a child with average self-esteem should score, leading to inaccuracy in results.
  
  

• A Child Check List - basically a list of similar questions to the Teacher Check List, however this is for self-completion by the child. A list of personal attributes, such as;
  
  Outgoing or Not Outgoing,
  Friendly or Unfriendly,
  Helpful or Unhelpful,
  Good Worker or Poor Worker, etc.
  
  

  These are examined by the child, who ticks those they feel apply to them. The completed list is studied by the teacher and based upon the results and their own personal knowledge of the child, a judgement is made. This approach has the added advantage of providing material for discussion later with the child or children, as to why they perceive themselves that way.
  
  

• Free Response Method - the child is asked to write an essay about themselves, and to list attributes which they believe to be personal characteristics. This can also take the for of twenty or more questions about the child, beginning with “I am ……….”. For children with learning difficulties, this additional structure can be very helpful. The completed essay/list is then analysed by the teacher, as per the Child Check List (as above), giving points for later discussion.
  
  
• Q-Sort - this involves the sorting into different piles by the child, of a series of card. Each card contains a statement about the self (e.g. I am always happy). The first ordering is ranked in priority of how the child sees itself, and the second ordering is how the child would like to be. There are over 22 different set of these cards on the market, however Bulter & Haigh’s (1954) 100 card set, is the most frequently used and is fairly accurate. Although time consuming to set-up, the effort is repaid by the involvement and interest levels.
  
  
• Psychometric Tests - Some psychometric tests are sufficiently user-friendly to be considered for use in the mainstream classroom. Included here are the LAWSEQ “Primary School” Version (Lawrence, 1982)and the LAWSEQ “High School” Version (1983) which measure global self-esteem in a speedy and simple manner. It is particularly useful for the teacher starting in a new class, who wishes to make a quick assessment of their pupils' self-esteem level.

The following activities should be practised regularly (at lest once per week) with a group size of 6 to 8 members. The order of priority with which to apply these activities over the course of lessons, is:

Circle-time: pupils are formed into a circle including the teacher. The teacher introduces the session as an opportunity for the pupils to voice their opinions (positive or negative) on anything concerning the school. The only rules are, a) No laughing at anyone and, 2) No one may speak without first being directed by the teacher. The teacher also may not criticise and must keep the pupils' opinions confidential. It will necessary for the teacher to gently draw out any reticent members of the group in the beginning. However once the situation had been established as non-threatening to these pupils, they should feel free to participate on their own.

Trusting: a good first exercise in any self-esteem enhancing program. The teacher introduces the concept that everyone displays behaviour that prevents others from trusting them, the group is then asked to compile a list of these behaviours, (e.g. unreliable, lying, being shifty etc.).

Sharing fears, hopes and aspirations: children within the group are asked to complete some of the following sentences in turn (either orally or in writing). Afterwards the group discusses the possible answers to each sentence.

a) I feel happy when…….
b) I feel sad when……….
c) I feel angry when……..
d) I feel silly when………
e) I feel glad when………
f) I feel afraid when……..
g) I feel proud when…….

Empathising: each member of the group is asked to secretly concentrate on a particular emotion (e.g. pleasure, disappointment, anger) and display it through facial expression only. The other members of the group are asked to guess at the individual’s emotion. The children are asked to explain their answer, and discuss possible reasons of feeling that particular emotion.

Showing pride: each member of the group is asked to give an incident (this can be either an occasion, a possession or a person), that they feel proud off. And explain why they feel this way.

Remembering good times: the members of the group are asked to visualise, and then describe a time when they were particularly happy (e.g. a day out somewhere, or receiving a present).

Thinking positive: the children are asked to relax and visualise themselves in the role of a hero or heroine, achieving some acclaimed event, e.g.:

A football team captain excepting a trophy.
Winning a gold medal at the Olympics.
An acceptance speech at the Oscars.

Positive feedback: this exercise can become a simple competitive game, with each member of the group in turn becomes the object of praise and admiration for the rest of the group. The process is repeated until participants have exhausted their imagination of possible praises. The last person still praising is considered the winner.

Role Playing: this exercise can follow on easily from positive thinking. Each member of the group selects an achieving role model (such as a champion footballer or local hero, etc.). The individual then has to take on the role of this person while being interviewed by the other members of the group (this can take the form of an imaginary press conference). Questions asked by the interviewers should be about who the role-model is, what they have done and why they are considered so good at it, etc.

Making a friend: the group discusses the qualities that one looks for in a close friend and why these qualities are valued. The aim of this exercise is for participants to recognise within themselves the positive qualities they themselves would seek in a friend.

Counselling and pastoral care by teachers or other professionals is recognised for its contribution to self-esteem enhancement in children. Many Teacher Training programmes include units on counselling skills in the classroom or the duties of pastoral care.

Person Centred Counselling

Carl Rogers (1969) defines 3 conditions for effective counselling, these are empathy, genuineness (or congruence) and unconditional positive regard (or respect):

Empathy - is achieved by what Rogers referred to being within the client’s “frame of reference”, and involves a combination of two skills. The first is understanding the child by placing oneself in the client’s position and perceiving the situation as the child perceives it. Second is the ability to communicate this understanding of the client’s position to the client in order to encourage and support them. This is extremely difficult to achieve as it requires constant focus on all aspects of the clients conversation and behaviour. It is not sympathy, which involves pity and compassion, but recognition of the child’s situation.

Genuineness (or Congruence) - this is the embodiment of approach ability, by being a real or genuine person. The counsellor must be “transparent” in their openness to the client and reject all semblance of pretence or superiority. No deception or empty words should be attempted. If the counsellor is shocked into disapproval of a clients admissions, then the counsellor’s perception should be brought out into the open for discussion. Only in this way can the client be encouraged to become more open and thus gain a deeper insight into themself.

Respect (or Unconditional Positive Regard) - the client must be “prized” by the counsellor and be respected or valued. Every client is seen as a unique individual about whom there should be no preconceived ideas of blame. Regardless of their problems or difficulties, the client has the right to be accepted for themselves. Without this acceptance and appreciation of who they are, the client will be unable to discuss their behaviour which the counsellors may be viewing in a negative light. The behaviour of a client must be seen as separate to who they are, and contingent upon the current circumstances they are experiencing.

The qualities that must be embodied by a person-centred counsellor are a belief in the ability of individuals to direct and control their own lives. This, in turn, means the progression of therapy is at the client’s own pace, and the client selects all values and standards (even when the counsellor may personally disagree with them). Person-centred counselling is by no means passive, just because it does not seek to evaluate, diagnose, judge or guide the client. It involves constant active listening and responding in a manner that conveys understanding and acceptance to the client. These are the very strengths that make this approach such an effective enhancement of self-esteem. Very often, this is the first time the client has encountered someone who has only positive statements to make about the client. If you wish to check if you have the relevant qualities to attempt a counselling approach, completion of the Counsellors Check List can give a guideline. This is a self completion questionnaire and there may be a tendency for seeing oneself in a favourable light when completing it. To avoid this, think of an example from your own experience, for each question. The check list can also be a valuable tool for feedback after a counselling session, in order to judge if you have applied the key principles.

Other counselling perspectives exist, such as Psychodynamic approach (based upon the work of Freud, 1890s), the Gestalt approach (based upon the work Laura & Fritz Perls, 1940s), Rational-Emotional approach (based upon the work of Albert Ellis, 1955), and Behavioural approach (based upon the collective works of Albert Bandar, and other behaviourists). These approaches all have their own strengths and weaknesses. However, unlike Rogers person-centred approach, they do not lend themselves easily to the classroom setting, and should only be attempted by a qualified counsellor who has completed a recognised qualification or course of training (such as the Certificate in Counselling).

"Enhancing Self-concept in Early Childhood", S. C. Samuels (1977), Human Science Press.

"Enhancing Self-esteem in the Classroom", D. Lawrence (1987), Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd (London).

“Self-esteem in Children with Special Educational Needs”, P.W. Gurney (1988), Routledge, London.

"The Handbook of Self-concept: Developmental, Social and Clinical Considerations", Edited by B. A. Bracken (1996), John Wiley & Sons.

"Unlocking the Doors to Self-esteem", C. L. Fox & F. L. Wearver (1990), Jalmar Press (USA).

"Causal Effects of Academic self-concept on Academic Achievement: Structural Equation Models of Longitudinal Data", H. W. Marsh & A. S. Yeung, Journal of Educational Psychology, 1997, Vol. 89, No.1, p41-54.

"Improving Self-esteem and Reading", D. Lawrence (1985), Educational Research, Nov, 1985, Vol. 27, No.3.

"Measuring Self-concept Across the Life Span: Issues and Instrumentation", B. M. Byrne (1996), The American Psychological Association.

"The Shavelson Model Revisited: Testing for the Structure of Academic Self-Concept Across Pre-, Early, and Late Adolescents", B. M. Byrne & D. A. Worth Gavin, Journal of Educational Psychology 1996, Vol.88 No. 2, P215-228.